PROGRAM AREA OVERVIEW

PROGRAM AREA OVERVIEW --
BASIC ENERGY SCIENCES

http://www.er.doe.gov/production/bes

The Basic Energy Sciences (BES) program supports fundamental research in the natural sciences leading to new and improved energy technologies. The program's purpose is to create new scientific knowledge by supporting basic, peer-reviewed research in areas of materials sciences, chemical sciences, geosciences, plant and microbial biosciences, and engineering sciences that are relevant to energy resources, production, conversion, and efficiency. The results of BES-supported research are routinely published in the open literature.

A key function of the program is to plan, construct, and operate premier national user facilities to serve researchers at universities, national laboratories, and industrial laboratories, thus enabling the acquisition of new knowledge that cannot be obtained in any other way. The scientific facilities include synchrotron radiation light sources, high-flux neutron sources, electron-beam microcharacterization centers, and specialized facilities such as the Combustion Research Facility. These national resources are available free of charge to all researchers based on the quality and importance of proposed nonpropriety experiments.

A major objective of the BES program is to promote the transfer of the results of our basic research to advance and create technologies important to Department of Energy (DOE) missions in areas of energy efficiency, renewable energy resources, improved use of fossil fuels, mitigation of the adverse impacts of energy production and use, and future fusion energy sources. The following set of technical topics represents one important mechanism by which the BES program augments its system of university and laboratory research programs and integrates basic science, applied research, and development activities within the DOE.

5. ADVANCED FOSSIL FUELS RESEARCH

For the foreseeable future, the energy needed to sustain economic growth will continue to come largely from fossil fuels. However, maintaining low-cost energy in the face of growing demand and increasing environmental pressure will require new technologies, which must allow the Nation to use its indigenous resources more wisely, cleanly, and efficiently. These resources include both coal, the Nation's most abundant and lowest cost resource, as well as inherently clean natural gas. One of the key recommendations of the National Energy Policy is to improve energy efficiency through the implementation of innovative technology. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Methane Conversion Processes - The very large reserves of conventional natural gas (approximately 13,000 trillion cubic feet) could serve as a feedstock for the production of fuels and chemicals well into the 21st century. However, a substantial portion of these reserves are not located close to major gas markets and considerable investment would be required to move the gas to market. Following the oil crisis of the 1970's, world wide research and development efforts have sought commercially viable processes for converting methane, the major constituent of natural gas, to more valuable and easily transportable chemicals and fuels. Such processes might also allow the large deposits of natural gas hydrates to be tapped.

Existing processes for converting methane to methanol and higher hydrocarbons are indirect since they require the initial formation of synthesis gases. Direct methane conversion has the potential of being more energy efficient by bypassing the energy intensive step of synthesis gas formation. However, high selectivity at a reasonable conversion per pass has been difficult to achieve. Grant applications are sought for the catalytic conversion of methane to more useful chemicals and fuels. Areas of interest include: (1) steam and carbon dioxide reforming or partial oxidation of methane to carbon monoxide and hydrogen, followed by Fischer-Tropsch chemistry, (2) the direct oxidation of methane to methanol and formaldehyde, (3) oxidative coupling of methane to ethylene, and (4) direct conversion to aromatics and hydrogen in the absence of oxygen.

b. Carbon Sequestration/Conversion - Carbon sequestration is a relatively new approach to the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentration (i.e., new compared to the other two pathways - improving the efficiency of energy use and reducing the carbon content of fuels). Current approaches include the conversion of carbon dioxide to benign, stable compounds for long-term storage or to value added products for reuse. Grant applications are sought to develop practical methods to: (1) grossly accelerate the natural bioconversion of carbon dioxide to methane in geologic reservoirs by employing methanogen microorganisms as catalysts, as well as other geochemical reactants, (2) apply similar processes to the capture of carbon dioxide at large point sources, and (3) efficiently employ microorganisms and/or biomimetic catalysts to convert carbon dioxide in flue gas to intermediates that can be subsequently reacted to calcium/magnesium carbonates for terminal sequestration.

c. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells - The development of fuel cells for use in power generation, while highly efficient and nearly pollution free, has faced many challenges. One major hurdle is to reduce the cost of fuel cell power plants to levels that would allow deep penetration into the stationary, transportation, and portable markets. The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), which operates at high temperatures (700 - 1000^oC)and utilizes ceramic electrolytes, shows promise for various applications. Unlike lower temperature fuel cells that require relatively pure hydrogen (e.g., <10 ppm CO) as fuel, the high operating temperature of SOFCs allows hydrogen with significant amounts of CO, as well as higher hydrocarbons, to be used directly as fuels. However, the high operating temperature also limits the selection of materials that can be used in the highly reducing (anode) and highly oxidizing (cathode) environments in the fuel cell stack. Grant applications are sought to drive down SOFC costs by developing low temperature (<700^oC) electrolytes, electrocatalysts for high-power-density direct electrochemical oxidation of higher hydrocarbons, and electrocatalysts for high-power-density electrochemical reduction of oxygen. Grant applications are also sought to develop new processes that may help lower SOFC costs, such as innovative concepts in balance of plant design and the coproduction of fuels and electricity.

d. Improvement of Coal Liquefaction Process - Although technology for the direct conversion of coal to liquid fuels has undergone significant development over the last 15 years (including advances in product yields, quality, and projected product costs), the resultant economics are still not good enough to encourage commercialization. Grant applications are sought for an improved or unique environmentally acceptable process for the economical production of transportation fuels from coal. Proposed processes should provide yields of 70 percent or more of specification liquid transportation fuels at a cost less than $29/bbl. In addition, emissions from the burning of these fuels (in CO₂ per unit of energy output) must be low enough to rival petroleum based fuels.

Please note: (1) The technical topics are to be interpreted literally, and all grant applications must respond to a particular topic and subtopic. (2) Last year only 1 out of 4 grant applications were awarded; only those applications with high scientific/technical quality will be competitive.

References

Subtopic a: Methane Conversion Processes

1. Fox, J. M., III, et al., "An Evaluation of Direct Methane Conversion Processes," Chemical Engineering Progress, 86 (4):42-50, April 1990. (ISSN: 0360-7275)

2. Kruglov, A. V., et al., "Optimization of the Simulated Countercurrent Moving-Bed Chromatagraphic Reactor for the Oxidative Coupling of Methane," Chemical Engineering Science, 51(11): 2945-2950, June 1996. (ISSN: 0009-2509)

3. Kuo, J. C., "Evaluation of Direct Methane Conversion Processes," Chemical Reactor Technology for Environmentally Safe Reactors and Products, pp. 183-226, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. (ISBN: 0792320328)

4. Labinger, J. A., "Methane Activation in Homogeneous Systems," Fuel Processing Technology, 42(2-3): 325-338, 1995. (ISSN: 0378-3820)

5. Lu, Y., et al., "Oxidative Coupling of Methane Using Oxygen-Permeable Dense Membrane Reactors," Catalysis Today, 56(1-3):297-305, February 25, 2000. (ISSN: 0920-5861)

6. Lunsford, J. H., "Catalytic Conversion of Methane to More Useful Chemicals and Fuels: A Challenge for the 21st Century," Catalysis Today, 63(2-4):165-174, December 25, 2000. (ISSN: 0920-5861)

7. Olah, G. A., "Electrophillic Methane Conversion," Accounts of Chemical Research, 20(11):422-428, American Chemical Society, November 1987. (ISSN 0001-4842)

8. Reyes, S. C. and Androulakis, I. P., "Role of Distributed Oxygen Addition and Product Removal in the Oxidative Coupling of Methane," AIChE Journal, 45(4):860, April 1999. (ISSN: 0001-1541)

Subtopic b: Carbon Sequestration/ Conversion

9. Beecy, D. J., et al., "Biogenic Methane: A Long-Term CO₂ Recycle Concept," presented at the First National Conference on Carbon Sequestration, May 14-17, 2001. (URL: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/5al.pdf)

10. Bond, G. M., et al., "Enzymatic Catalysis and CO₂ Sequestration," World Resource Review,11(4):603-619, 1999. (URL: http://www2.msstate.edu/~krreddy/glowar/wrr.html)

11. Davison, J. and Freund, P., Putting Carbon Back in the Ground, Cheltenham, England: IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, February 2001. (ISBN: 1-898373- 28-0) (E-mail contact: Andrea Smith at andrea@ieagreen.demon.co.uk)

12. Koide, H., "Prospect of Geological Sequestration of CO₂ for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation and Natural Gas Recovery," International Journal of the Society of Materials Engineering for Resources, 7(1): 4-10,1999.

13. Rice, D. D. and Claypool, G. E., "Generation, Accumulation, and Resource Potential of Biogenic Gas," AAPG Bulletin, 65:5-25, 1981. (ISSN: 0149-1423)

14. Schoell, M., "Multiple Origins of Methane in the Earth," Chemical Geology, 71:1-10, 1988. (ISSN: 0009-2541)

15. Scott, A. R., "Improving Coal Gas Recovery with Microbially Enhanced Coalbed Methane," presented at the International Conference on Coal Seam Gas and Oil, Queensland, Australia, March 23-25, 1998, Coalbed Methane: Scientific, Environmental, and Economic Evaluations, pp. 89-110, Boston: Kluwer Academic, July 1999. (ISBN: 0792356985)

16. Simpson, T. B., "Limiting Emissions of the Greenhouse Gas - CO₂," Environmental Progress, 10 (4):248, November 1991. (ISSN: 0278-4491)

17. Stevens, S. and Gale, J., "Geologic CO₂ Sequestration," Oil and Gas Journal, 98(20):40-44, May 15, 2000. (ISSN: 0030-1388)

18. Wolfe, R. S., "1776-1996: Alessandro Volta’s Combustible Air," ASM News, 62(10) 529-534, October 1996. (ISSN: 0044-7897)

Subtopic c: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

19. De Haart, L. G., et al., "Operation of Anode-Supported Thin Electrolyte Film Solid Oxide Fuel Cells at 800^o>C and Below," Journal of Power Sources, 71(1-2):302-305, 1998. (ISSN: 0378-7753)

20. Kendall, K. R., et al., "Recent Developments in Perovskite-Based Oxide Ion Conductors," Solid State Ionics, 82(3-4):215-223, December 1, 1995. (ISSN: 0167-2738)

21. Kim, H., et al., "Direct Oxidation of Liquid Fuels in a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 148(7):A693-A695, July 2001. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

22. Livermore, S. J., et al., "Fuel Reforming and Electrical Performance Studies in Intermediate Temperature Ceria-Gadolinia-Based SOFCs," Journal of Power Sources, 86(1-2):411-416, March 2000. (ISSN: 0378-7753)

23. Skinner, S. J., "Recent Advances in Perovskite-Type Materials for SOFC Cathodes," Fuel Cells Bulletin, 2001 (33):6-12, June 2001. (ISSN: 1464-2859)

24. Xui-Mei, G., et al., "Simulation of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell for Oxidative Coupling of Methane," Catalysis Today, 50:109-116, April 6, 1999. (ISSN: 0920-5861)

Subtopic d: Improvement of Coal Liquefaction Process

25. Burke, F. P., "Summary Report of the DOE Liquefaction Process Development Campaign of the Late Twentieth Century," DOE/PC 93054-94; DOE Contract DE-AC22-94PC93054.

26. Burke, F. P., et al., "Recent Advances and Future Prospects for Direct Coal Liquefaction Process Development," Preprints of Papers- American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, 42(1):313-317, 1997. (ISSN: 0569-3772)

27. Comolli, A. G., et al., Low Severity Catalytic Two Stage Liquefaction Process, September 1988. (DOE Report DOE/PC/80002-9) (NTIS Order No. DE89003441. See section 7.1)

28. Weick, L. J., "Strategic Implications of Gas to Liquids Technology," presented at The Cairo International Oil & Gas Summit, Cairo,Egypt, February 12 1998, Tulsa, OK: Syntroleum Corporation, 1998. (URL: http://www.syntroleum.com/pdfs/cairo298.pdf)

6. CATALYSTS FOR PETROLEUM REFINING AND CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS

Over 80 percent of petroleum refining processes involves catalysis. About 90 percent of chemical manufacturing processes and more than 20 percent of all industrial products in the U.S. employ underlying catalytic steps. Catalysis plays a substantial role in the production of 30 of the top 50 U.S. commodity chemicals. Six more of the remaining 20 are made from raw materials that are produced catalytically. The energy use component in the production of the top 50 chemicals is significant - 5 quadrillion BTUs per year - 3 quadrillion BTSs per year for those with catalytic production routes. It has been estimated that if all the catalytic processes associated with petroleum refining and with manufacture of the top 50 chemicals were raised to their maximum yields, total energy savings would exceed one quadrillion BTUs per year. More efficient chemical production, resulting from improvements to catalytic processes, would also contribute to significantly reduced carbon emissions. This topic seeks to accelerate the catalyst discovery and applications process by identifying catalysts that have higher selectivities, can operate at modest temperatures and pressures, and contribute to a reduction in the number of unit operations, all of which impact overall resource efficiency. Grant application are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Catalysts for Optically Active Fine Chemical Synthesis - Many fine chemicals, used as starting materials for other chemicals (e.g., pharmaceuticals, photographic chemicals, dyes and pigments), have one or more asymmetric carbons or other chiral centers that exhibit desirable optical activity. Asymmetric synthesis, based on catalysis, is the preferred process for producing these fine chemicals because alternative processes (separating optical isomers from unwanted isomers, which are discarded or converted to desired isomers) use too much energy. However, existing asymmetric processes are inefficient. Therefore grant applications are sought to develop new catalysts - heterogeneous, homogeneous, or hybrid - for the asymmetric synthesis of optically active compounds. Reactions of interest include oxidations, reductions, alkylations, isomerizations, and substitutions such as halogen substitutions. Proposed approaches are restricted only by the following: (1) the target synthetic compounds must have commercial application, (2) the target compounds must exhibit optical activity, (3) the catalysts must synthesize only one optically active isomer from starting materials that do not exhibit optical activity, and (4) the catalysts must not be commercially available.

b. Commodity Chemical Synthesis - Oxidation is the most energy intensive of all chemical processes for the production of commodity chemicals and polymers. These commodity chemicals include ethylene and propylene oxide, styrene, phenol and acetone, and nitric acid. More selective oxidation could reduce energy consumption by increasing the yield of desired compounds. Grant applications are sought to develop catalysts and associated processes for the synthesis of olefins, aromatics, and oxygenates, the critical building blocks of these commodity chemicals.

c. Catalysts for Petrochemical Synthesis - The petrochemical "building blocks" (including ethylene, propylene, butane, butene, butadienes, benzene, toluene, and xylenes, and their immediate substituted products such as cumene chemicals) are used as starting materials for the manufacture of all other chemicals. Grant applications are sought for improved processes for the petrochemical synthesis of these building block chemicals (starting from petroleum fractions or natural gas liquids), based on the development of new catalysts. As an example, a catalyst used to synthesize ethylene from natural gas liquids, would be of interest under this subtopic.

d. Refinery Catalysts - Catalysts are used in many refinery operations, including catalytic cracking, hydrotreatment, isomerization, reforming, and alkylation. Grant applications are sought to improve the above processes through the development and use of new or improved catalysts. Catalysts selected for investigation must: (1) have applicability to a U.S. refinery operation, (2) demonstrate energy savings either by saving feedstock or by lowering operating conditions such as temperature and pressure, and (3) not be commercially available. Priority will be given to grant applications that include the participation of a U.S. refiner in the development and application of these catalysts.

References

1. Chemical Industry of the Future: Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Chemical Industry, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies, 2000. (Available on the Web at: http://www.oit.doe.gov/chemicals/page11.shtml)

2. Petroleum Industry of the Future: Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies, 1998. (Available on the Web at: http://www.oit.doe.gov/petroleum/#profile)

3. Technology Vision 2020: The U. S. Chemical Industry, Washington, DC: American Chemical Society (ACS), 1996. (Available on the Web at: http://www.ccrhq.org/vision/index.html) (Also available from ACS, Office of Legislative and Government Affairs. Telephone: 202-872-4600)

4. Vision 2020 Catalysis Report. (URL: http://www.ccrhq.org/vision/index/roadmaps/catrep .html) (Questions? Contact the Office of Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse, 1-800-862-2086 or at 202-586-7543)

5. Vision 2020 Reaction Engineering Roadmap (URL: http://www.aiche.org/cwrt/projects/reacteng.htm) (Questions? Contact the Office of Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse, 1-800-862-2086 or at 202-586-7543)

6. Vision 2020: Materials Technology Workshops Reports. (Available on the Web at http://www.oit.doe.gov/chemicals/) (Questions? Contact the Office of Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse, 1-800-862-2086 or at 202-586-7543)

7. Vision 2020: Workshop Report on Alternative Media, Conditions, and Raw Materials. (Available on the Web at: http://www.oit.doe.gov/chemicals/page9.shtml) (Questions? Contact the Office of Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse, 1-800-862-2086 or at 202-586-7543)

7. BIOPRODUCTS AND BIOENERGY RESEARCH

Energy from sunlight, our abundant natural resource, offers the opportunity to utilize a sustainable source of raw materials -- namely, biomass from our nation's crops, forestry, aquatic, and agricultural wastes -- to power our homes, fuel our vehicles, and create everyday products. The use of biomass to produce BioProducts and BioEnergy (BioP&E) will help strengthen U.S. energy security, protect the environment, reduce greenhouse gases, and revitalize rural America. In conjunction with the Office of Basic Energy Sciences, the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (including the Office of Transportation Technologies, the Office of Industrial Technologies, and the Office of Power Technologies) seek environment friendly technologies that enable bio-based renewable resources to produce home-grown transportation fuels, chemicals, materials or consumer products, and generate clean locally-based power. Grant applications must demonstrate that proposed approaches have the potential to be more economical than currently practiced technologies. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Molecular Recognition Separation Technology - Biomass sources often contain some fraction of inherently valuable chemicals, either in its native state or after some processing. For example, corn oil contains small but very valuable amounts of sterols. The pyrolysis of biomass results in a rich mixture of many valuable chemicals. Currently, the cost efficient separation and purification of these valuable chemicals is preventing the wider use of biomass as a source of these chemicals. Molecular recognition separation technology involves the discovery and design of molecular level structures that uniquely associate with a particular molecule, analogous to the way that enzymes work in nature. This molecular recognition could be based on chemical association, hydrogen or other weaker bond association, or possibly size association. Grant applications are sought for the research and development of molecular recognition technology that can be used to obtain valuable chemicals from biomass. The technology could be built into a membrane or resin system to efficiently remove, and thus purify, a single valuable chemical component from a mixture. Mechanisms must also be available to reverse the association in order to release and thus recover the valuable component.

b. Cetane Additives for Diesel Fuel - For diesel engine fuel, the cetane number measures ignition delay; higher cetane numbers are desirable because there is less time between fuel injection and ignition. In addition, diesel fuels with higher cetane numbers have been shown to have reduced nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions. It is believed that the cetane number could be increased by using ignition improvers, or additives. This is common practice in the fuel industry where additive technology has evolved through the laboratory testing of thousands of additives and additive combinations. Furthermore, the best technologies have undergone extensive engine testing and years of field experience. These additives slow the oxidation process, prevent wear, lower friction, disperse contaminants, keep surfaces clean, and prevent corrosion and rust. However, the production of low emission diesel engine fuels may require an evolutionary change in additive technology, since currently used additives contain sulfur, phosphorus, zinc, and other heavy metals that are suspect in reducing catalyst performance and durability. Grant applications are sought to develop and demonstrate cetane additives from renewable sources for diesel blending. These additives must be compatible with the diesel system and with each other. Grant applications should seek to understand both the additive and the additive-materials reactions - in particular, the extent to which the aging (use) of the additive affects additive performance, catalyst efficiency, and engine emissions.

c. Production and Utilization of Low-Cost Sugars of Biomass to Fuels and Chemicals - Plant matter is rich in carbohydrates that can be broken down to C6 and C5 sugars (i.e., glucose and xylose), important intermediate chemicals in the conversion of biomass to biobased products and energy. With further chemical processing, i.e., fermentation, these sugars can serve as feedstocks for higher chemicals and fuels. However, the cost of producing these sugars is a major obstacle to the widespread use of biomass products and energy. If the cost of producing fermentable sugars could be reduced, there would be a tremendous increase in the use of renewable carbon (biomass) in place of fossil carbon for the manufacture of fuel, chemicals, and materials, and this would spur the development of bio-refineries. Grant applications are sought to develop technology that will optimize unit operations for the production of sugar streams from biomass and the fermentation of the varied sugars to fuels and chemicals. Examples of sugar production research include sugar stream separation, sugar recovery methods, detoxification techniques, enzyme development and applications. Examples of sugar utilization research include the development of highly efficient microorganisms capable of fermenting all available biomass sugars in robust environments (such as high sugar concentration and elevated temperatures) and of hydrolysis tolerant microorganisms.

References

1. Biobased Products and Bioenergy
http://www.bioproducts-bioenergy.gov/ page2

2. Dai S., "Hierarchically Imprinted Sorbents," Chemistry: a European Journal, 7(4):763-768, February 16, 2001. (ISSN: 0947-6539)

3. Ding Z. L., et al., "Size-Dependent Control of the Binding of Biotinylated Proteins to Streptavidin Using a Polymer Shield," Nature, 411(6833):59-62, May 3, 2001. (ISSN: 0028-0836)

4. Emerging Separation and Separative Technologies for Process Waste Reduction, New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), 1999. (ISBN: 08616907897) (AIChE Publication No. C-8) (Contact: AIChE, 3 Park Avenue New York, NY 10016-5901)

5. Fishman H. A., et al., "Biosensors in Chemical Separations," Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure, 27:165-198, 1998. (ISSN: 1056-8700)

6. Himmel, M. E., et al., "Cellulases: Structure, Function, and Applications," Chapter 8, Handbook on Bioethanol: Production and Utilization, pp. 143-161, Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1996. (ISBN: 1560325534) (See also Cellulase Enzyme Research: www.ott.doe.gov/biofuels/cellulase.html)

7. Executive Order 13134: Developing and Promoting Biobased Products and Bioenergy, Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President of the United States, August 12,1999. (Available at Biomass Research & Development Initiative Web page: http://www.bioproducts-bioenergy.gov/eo13134.html) (Also appeared in Federal Register, 64:44639, August 16, 1999. URL: http://www.nara.gov/fedreg/eo1999.html#13134)

8. Lee, S. H. D. and Johnson, I., "Removal of Gaseous Alkali Metal Compounds from Hot Flue Gas by Particulate Sorbents," Journal of Engineering for Power, Tranactions ASME, 102(2):397-402, 1980. (ISSN: 0022-082)

9. Logan, R. G., et al., "A Study of Techniques for Reducing Ash Deposition in Coal-Fired Gas Turbines," Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 16(4):221-233, 1990. (ISSN: 0360-1285)

10. Shi H.Q., et al., "Template-Imprinted Nanostructured Surfaces for Protein Recognition," Nature, 398(6728):593-597, April 15, 1999. (ISSN: 0028-0836)

11. The Technology Roadmap for Plant/Crop-Based Renewable Resources 2020, February 1999. (Report No. DOE/GO-10099-706)(Available on the Web at http://www.oit.doe.gov/agriculture/pdfs/ag25942.pdf)

12. Turn, S. Q., et al., "An Experimental Investigation of Alkali Removal from Biomass Producer Gas Using a Fixed Bed SF Solid Sorbent," Industrial and Engineering Chemical Research, 40(8):1960-1967, April 18, 2001. (ISSN: 0888-5885)

13. Uberoi, M., et al., "The Kinetics and Mechanism of Alkali Removal from Flue Gases by Solid Sorbents," Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 16(4):205-211, 1990. (ISSN: 0360-1285)

14. Wooley, R. J., "Meeting the Challenges of a Growing Industry," 6th Annual RFA [Renewable Fuels Asssociation] National Ethanol Conference- Policy and Marketing, February 18-20, 2001, La Vegas, NV. (Available on the Web at DOE Collaborations with Current Ethanol Producers: http://www.ethanolrfa.org/wooley.ppt)

8. ION BEAM APPLICATIONS FOR MATERIALS INTEGRATION BY LAYER TRANSFER

The ability to produce and manipulate thin films of different materials is vitally important in a number of fields of science and engineering. Micro- and optoelectronics, micro-electro- mechanical devices (MEMs), and lab-on-a-chip are some examples of technologies that require multiple thin layers to produce functional devices. Ion-beam techniques can be used to transfer thin semiconductor films and even fully processed devices from bulk substrates onto alternative host materials. These ion beam techniques allow the circumvention of many limitations (such as lattice mismatch, interdiffusion, and interface chemical reactions) and permits the placement of thin films on nearly any dissimilar material, whether single-crystal, polycrystalline, or amorphous. Newer technologies will require the integration of incompatible or dissimilar materials to an even greater extent.

This topic is focused on the use of ion beams to facilitate the fabrication of a thin layer (less than 10 m) of a non-semiconducting material to the surface of another dissimilar material. Specifically, grant applications are sought to use ion beams to produce material changes in a buried region of material in order to facilitate the removal and transfer of a thin layer to a dissimilar substrate. Proposed approaches must stress process innovation; grant applications that address the scale-up of known processes are not of interest and will be declined. Special consideration will be given to grant applications that attempt to elucidate the physical mechanisms responsible for the material transfer process. The grant application also must show how the proposed innovations will result in significant advances over state-of-the-art technologies. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Oxide and Ceramic Materials - Grant applications are sought for the integration of thin films (less than10 m) of oxide and/or ceramic materials onto dissimilar substrates using ion beams. Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, the separation and transfer of ferroelectric materials (or fabrication of freestanding films), buffer layers for epitaxial film growth, and highly-emissive materials. Traditional semiconductor materials, such as Si and GaAs, are specifically excluded as thin film materials (but their use as a substrate material would be of interest).

b. Polymer or Metal Materials, and MEMs Applications - The incorporation of polymer and metal thin films in MEMs greatly increases the device functionality. Therefore, grant applications are sought to integrate polymer or metal thin films with non-similar substrates. Of particular interest are innovative processes that use ion beams to transfer polymer or metal films for use as sensor or actuator elements in MEMs structures.

References

1. Bruel, M., "Application of Hydrogen Ion Beams to Silicon on Insulator Material Technology," Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research, Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, b108(3):313-319, February 1996. (ISSN: 0168-583X)

2. Levy, M., et al., "Fabrication of Single-Crystal Lithium Niobate Films by Crystal Ion Slicing," Applied Physics Letters, 76(16):2293-2295, October 19, 1998. (ISSN: 0003-6951)

3. Mirza, A. R. and Ayon, A. A., "Silicon Wafer Bonding for MEMS Manufacturing," Solid State Technology, 42(8):73-74, August 1999. (ISSN: 0038-111X)

4. Tong, Q.-Y. and Gosele, U. M., "Wafer Bonding and Layer Splitting for Microsystems," Advanced Materials, 11(17):1409-1425, December 1, 1999. (ISSN: 0935-9648)

5. Tong, Q.-Y. and Gosele, U. M., Semiconductor Wafer Bonding: Science and Technology, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. (ISBN: 0-471-57481-3)

6. Tong, Q.-Y., et al., "Fabrication of Single Crystalline SiC Layer on High Temperature Glass," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 144(5):111-113, May 1997. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

7. Weldon, M. K., et al., "On the Mechanism of the Hydrogen-Induced Exfoliation of Silicon," Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, 15(4):1065-1073, July 31, 1997. (ISSN: 0734-211X)

9. NEUTRON AND ELECTRON BEAM INSTRUMENTATION

The Department of Energy supports a number of large-scale, national user facilities that provide intense beams of neutrons and electrons for the characterization of materials. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Neutron Facilities – As a unique and increasingly utilized research tool, neutrons have made invaluable contributions to the physical, chemical, and biological sciences. The Department is committed to enhancing the operation and instrumentation of its present and future neutron science facilities so that their full potential is realized.

Grant applications are sought to develop improved neutron detectors and associated electronics needed for DOE's existing and proposed steady-state and pulsed neutron scattering facilities [References 1-2, 5]. New detectors must represent substantial improvements in one or more of the following parameters: efficiency at short wavelengths, high counting rate capability, high spatial resolution in one or two dimensions, cost per unit area, or adaptability to unique geometries. Detectors for pulsed neutron applications must be able to identify the time of arrival of each neutron. All detectors must have low intrinsic dark count rates and low sensitivity to gamma radiation.

Grant applications are also sought to develop novel or improved neutron optical components for use in neutron scattering instruments [References 2-3, 5]. Such components include, but are not limited to, neutron choppers, neutron guides, neutron lenses and focusing mirrors, neutron monochromators, or neutron polarization devices including ³He polarizing filters. Applications are also sought for novel use of such components in neutron scattering instruments.

b. Electron Beam Microcharacterization Facilities - The Department of Energy supports four collaborative research centers for electron beam microcharacterization of materials. These tools are important in the materials and biological sciences and are used in numerous research projects funded by the Department. Innovative instrumentation devel-opments offer the promise of radically improving the capabilities of electron beam microcharacterization and thereby stimulate new innovations in materials science.

Grant applications are sought to develop stages and holders with new capabilities for in situ experiments in the transmission electron microscope. Stages and/or holders must provide for one or more of the following: (i) application of magnetic field up to 5000 Oe in the plane of the specimen, with capability to rotate field orientation in the specimen plane with respect to the sample; (ii) manipulation or measurement of the sample using a 4-probe nanomanipulator, including capability to measure deflection or strain, or capability to apply electric fields or current; and (iii) precision control of specimen temperature (to an accuracy of 10^oC in the range 5-2000K), ambient gas pressure and flow rate (to within several percent for each), and alignment (to an angle accuracy±0.05 degrees on two axes).

Grant applications are also sought to develop electron sources for scanning transmission electron microscopy with brightness on the order 10⁹ Amp/cm²/steradian or higher. Developments in source stability and monochromaticity are also of interest. Current sources are based on tungsten emitters, and it is hoped that higher brightness can be achieved with new materials and designs. Proposed electron sources must be suitably robust for practical applications, have long lifetimes (greater than 6 months), and offer a significant increase in brightness over existing sources.

Grant applications are also sought for systems for automated data collection and processing. Systems should include hardware and platform-independent software for data collection and visualization, including automated measurement and mapping of crystallography, internal magnetic or electric field, or strain, and for multi-spectral analysis.

Finally, grant applications are sought for improved x-ray and electron detectors. Electron detectors should be suitable for 200-400kV electrons, and grant applications must focus on (1) serial detectors for scanning and/or (2) parallel imaging devices for conventional or scanning transmission electron microscopy. At least one of the following three aspects must be addressed: high quantum efficiency, high spatial resolution, and high temporal resolution. Proposed detectors must be robust and not susceptible to electron beam damage. X-ray detectors should significantly improve the sensitivity or spectral resolution of x-ray detectors for elemental analysis in electron microscopes, including new detectors and x-ray optic systems.

References
1. Carpenter, J. M., et al., eds., Neutrons, X-Rays, and Gamma Rays: Imaging Detectors, Material Characterization Techniques, and Applications, San Diego, CA, July 21-22, 1992, Proceedings of the SPIE (International Society for Optical Engineering), Vol. 1737, Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 1993. (ISBN: 0819409103)

2. Majkrzak, C., ed., Thin-Film Neutron Optical Devices: Mirrors, Supermirrors, Multilayer Monochromators, Polarizers, and Beam Guides, San Diego, CA, August 16-17, 1988, Proceedings of the SPIE, Vol. 983, Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 1989. (ISBN: 0819400181)

3. Majkrzak C. F. and Wood, J. L., eds., Neutron Optical Devices and Applications, San Diego, CA, July 22-24, 1992, Proceedings of the SPIE, Vol. 1738, Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 1992. (ISBN: 0819409111)

4. Proceedings of the Microscopy Society of America, Annual Meetings, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. (Printed version ISSN: 1431-9276) (Electronic version ISSN: 1435-8115)

5. Technology and Science at a High-Power Spallation Source: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Argonne National Laboratory, May 13-16, 1993, Argonne National Laboratory, 1993. (Report No. ANL/IPNS/PROC-81937) (NTIS Order No. DE94009685. Available from National Technical Information Service. See Section 7.1.)

6. Ultramicroscopy, 78(1-4), Elsevier-Holland, June 1999. (ISSN: 0304-3991)

7. Williams, D. B. and Carter, C. B., Transmission Electron Microscopy: A Textbook for Materials Science, Vols. 1-4, Plenum Publishing Corp., New York-London, 1996. (ISBN 0-306-45247-2)

8. Windsor, C. G., Pulsed Neutron Scattering, London: Taylor & Francis, 1981. (ISBN: 0-85066-195-1)

10. METAL FORMING

The following subjects associated with metal forming science and technology are consistent with key technologies relevant to the Department of Energy mission. These technologies have been identified as a result of Department of Energy interactions with research focus groups and workshops attended by federal agencies as well and universities and private industry. The bibliography lists some articles providing greater discussion of the areas of emphasis listed in this announcement. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Semi-Solid Forming - Semi-solid forming consists of heating or cooling an alloy into the two-phase, liquid-solid regime where both solid consistency and easy formability, using either casting or forging, are possible. The advantage of semi-solid casting is less shrinkage (voiding) and lower casting temperatures and, thus, less die wear. Forging is accomplished at much lower stresses without losing the "consistency" of a solid. A necessary condition for effective semi-solid forming appears to be a spherical rather than dendritic morphology of the solid phase. This has traditionally been accomplished by electromagnetic stirring, a relatively expensive process that has limited the commercial utilization of semi-solid technology. Grant applications are sought for alternative processing techniques for semi-solid forming that will reduce the cost of the spheroidization step and render the semi-solid process more viable. This opportunity may be particularly viable for aluminum alloys, many of which may be used for automotive applications.

b. Economical Superplastic Forming - Superplasticity is usually described as high tensile ductility of a material (e.g. greater than 600 percent), leading to very favorable forming characteristics. Although superplastically formed parts are now commercially available, particularly in the aerospace industry, widespread application has not occurred - most likely due to the relatively high cost of superplastic forming. These costs are associated with both the thermal and mechanical processing (needed to produce a refined grain size that will lead to superplastic formability) as well as with the relative lengthy time required for the superplastic forming step. Superplastic deformation that leads to high tensile ductilities is usually only observed at low (10^-4 s^-1) strain rates which preclude timely forming and reasonable

costs. Grant applications are sought to develop technology for bringing superplastic forming into more widespread use. Areas of research interest include lowering costs by less expensive thermal and mechanical processing, and utilizing alloys that can be formed superplastically at relatively high rates of strain. Basic research is currently being sponsored by the Office of Basic Energy Sciences and other agencies to understand the mechanism of high rate forming, and it is believed that commercial utilization is now more achievable.

c. Other Forming Processes - Alternative processes may also be candidates to replace conventional metal forming practices. Grant applications are sought to develop novel metal forming processes in addition to semi-solid and superplastic forming. These can include a wide range of technologies that lead to improved metal forming.

References

1. Flemings, M. C., "Behavior of Metal Alloys in the Semisolid State," Metallurgical Transactions. A, Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, 22A(5):957-981, 1991. (ISSN: 0360-2133)

2. Hughes, D. A., et al. "Metal Forming at the Center of Excellence for the Synthesis and Processing of Advanced Materials," JOM: the Journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials, 50(6):16-21, June 1998. (ISSN: 1047-4838) (Available on the Web at: http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9806/Hughes-9806.html)

3. Langdon, T. G., et al., "Future Research Directions for Interface Engineering in High Temperature Plasticity," Materials Science and Engineering, A166:237-241, 1993. (ISSN: 0921-5093) (Volume A166 is the summary of the Workshop on Grain Boundary and Interface Phenomena in the High Temperature Plasticity of Solids, October 1992, sponsored by the Office of Basic Energy Sciences.)

4. Spencer, D. B., et al., "Rheological Behavior of Sn-15 Pct Pb in the Crystallization Range," Metallurgical Transactions, 3(7):1925-1936, July 1972. (ISSN: 0026-086X)

11. NOVEL APPROACHES TO THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS - FABRICATION, PROCESSING, AND CHARACTERIZATION

This topic provides small businesses with an opportunity to carry out substantially novel research and development on the fabrication, processing, and characterization of thin-film photovoltaic (PV) materials and devices with the objective of solving some key research issues that may enable significant improvement in efficiency and cost reductions. Thin-film PV technologies hold promise for substantial cost advantage versus traditional single-crystal and polycrystalline silicon (Si) solar cells because of lower material use, fewer processing steps, and simpler device processing technologies. Currently, thin-film technologies based on amorphous and microcrystalline Si alloy materials, cadmium telluride (CdTe)/cadmium sulphide (CdS), and ternary and quaternary copper indium selenide (CIGS) are the frontrunners for large-scale production. In addition, polycrystalline thin-film Si provides an exciting new opportunity for the development of efficient, low-cost solar cells. Major technological advances have been made in recent years on these technologies in terms of efficiency, reliability, and materials synthesis and processing. However, the gap between the small-area cells and large-area devices and modules is still very large. Therefore, significant opportunity exists for improving materials and device fabrication and developing innovative processing technologies to close this gap. A common element in all of these thin-film solar cells is the use of high-quality, thin-film, transparent conducting oxides (TCO). The primary issues in each of these technologies have been addressed in a recent workshop on Basic Energy Opportunities in Photovoltaics [see reference 1 following this topic].

Grant applications should represent a significant advance in materials or in processing and characterization that will lead ultimately to high-quality, thin-film PV at costs that are competitive with present-day energy sources. Grant applications will be declined if they are: (1) limited to a minor improvement of a material or process, or (2) limited to data collection or a paper study. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Amorphous, Microcrystalline, and Polycrystalline Si Thin Films - Amorphous-to-microcrystalline-to- polycrystalline Si thin films form a continuum of materials architecture that is of interest for developing high-performance PV devices with many interrelated research issues. Compared to other thin-film technologies, amorphous Si has attained a degree of maturity to be considered commercially viable. Nevertheless, grant applications are sought to develop significant improvements in device performance in terms of efficiency, reliability, and cost-effective fabrication, and processing. Areas of research interest include: (1) understanding and control of Si and alloy film structures ranging from amorphous to microcrystalline to polycrystalline phases and the structural relationship to optical and electrical properties that impacts device performance; (2) understanding the role of hydrogen in structural properties, alloying and doping, and in metastability; and (3) novel material deposition techniques to improve growth rates and material properties.

b. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Thin Film - Major progress has been made in recent years on CdTe-based, thin-film solar cells. A number of relatively simple, low-cost methods have been used to fabricate efficient solar cells, and record efficiencies greater than 16 percent have been achieved in small-area devices. However, the efficiency gap between a small-area device and large-area modules is in the range of 8-10 absolute percentage points, and therefore, significant development work needs to be done to close this gap. Grant applications are sought to develop technology to improve the efficiency and performance of CdTe thin film solar cells. Other issues of concern are long-term stability and environmental sensitivity of cadmium. Areas of research interest include understanding the basic nature of polycrystalline films such as microstructure, defects, and impurities; stability of surface and interfaces against interdiffusion; post-deposition treatment and other process variables; and development of optimum front and back contacts.

c. Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS) - CIGS is by far the most promising material for thin-film PV devices. Recently, a record efficiency of 18.8 percent was achieved in a small-area device fabricated mostly by a physical vapor deposition technique. In a larger CIGS device (a 3651 cm² module), a world-record efficiency of 12.1 percent was achieved by Siemens Solar Industries. In spite of these major advances, many hurdles still need to be overcome. Grant applications are sought to develop technology to achieve optimum CIGS device performance and lower-cost manufacturing. Areas of research interest include: (1) development of a predictive understanding of material and device properties; (2) development of a novel low-cost device fabrication method; (3) real-time material characterization and process control; and (4) identification of a novel heterojunction partner other than CdS.

d. Transparent Conducting Oxides - In the field of thin-film solar cells, transparent conducting oxides (TCO) are commonly used as either a substrate or superstrate. An ideal TCO material not only would have very high electrical conductivity and optical transmission in the solar spectrum but also would be chemically inert and structurally compatible with thin-film PV materials in various processing environments. Typical TCO materials, produced commercially and universally used for PV devices, are SnO₂ (Sb or F), indium tin oxide (ITO), and ZnO (Al). Grant applications are sought to achieve superior performance of thin-film solar cells by developing (1) new and improved TCO materials with n- and p-type conductivity, or (2) better ways of making conventional TCO materials with superior electrical and optical properties.

References

1. Benner, J., et al., "Basic Research Opportunities in Photovoltaics Workshop," Photovoltaics for the 21st Century, PV 99-11, Seattle, WA: Electrochemical Society, Inc., Spring 1999, pp. 203-300. (ISBN: 1566772338)

2. Deb, S. K. and Sopori, B., "Chapter 11: Recent Advances in Thin Film Solar Cells," Handbook of Thin Film Devices, 2:311-362, New York: Academic Press, 2000. (Vol. 2 ISBN: 0125507607) (5 vol. set of Handbook... ISBN: 0122653203)

3. Proceedings of the 28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Anchorage, Alaska, September 15-22, 2000, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2000. (ISBN: 0780357728) (IEEE Product No. CH37036-TBR) (Conference papers available full-text under the category "Conference Papers" at the following Web site: http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/conf.html)

4. Zweibel, K., "Issues in Thin Film PV Manufacturing Cost Reduction," Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 59(1-2):1-18, September 1999. (ISSN: 0927-0248) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/documents/25249.html)

12. BATTERY TECHNOLOGY FOR ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES

The commercial use of electric and hybrid electric vehicle technologies has been limited by the performance and excessive costs of power sources and storage devices. In conjunction with the Office of Basic Energy Sciences, the Department of Energy's Advanced Automotive Technologies program is interested in identifying and developing innovative concepts for advanced batteries that will improve the performance, extend the life, and significantly reduce the cost of the vehicles.

Electric vehicles (EV's) require batteries with high energy density; hybrid electric vehicles (HEV's) require batteries that can deliver high power pulses. Both types of batteries must be able to accept high power recharging pulses from regenerative braking. For high enegy density batteries, the cells must provide 200 Watt-hours/kg, 400 Wh/l, 400 W/kg and 800W/l or greater, have a life of 1000 cycles at 80 percent depth of discharge, and have a calendar life of at least 10 years. For high power applications, the cells must provide peak power of 1500 W/kg or greater, have a cycle life of at least 300,000 shallow cycles, and have a calendar life of 15 years. For both types of batteries, materials to be utilized should be plentiful, have low cost (< $10/kg), be environmentally benign, and be easily recycled. Evaluation of the technology with regard to the above criteria should be performed in accordance with applicable U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium test procedures or Society of Automotive Engineers recommended practices [see references that follow].

Proposed approaches must be demonstrated in full cells of at least 0.2 Ampere-hour in size, and grant applications must show how proposed innovations would result in significant advances in performance and cost reduction over state-of-the-art technologies. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode Materials with Enhanced Stability for EV and HEVApplications - The instability of conventional lithium-ion cathode materials have been shown to contribute in a significant manner to the performance, calendar life, and abuse tolerance limitations of lithium-ion cells and batteries. Grant applications are sought to develop new cathode materials that offer enhanced performance for lithium-ion batteries in EV or HEV applications. Proposed approaches must demonstrate how the particle morphologies and/or the compositional tailoring at the molecular level will enhance the performance of the novel materials in cathode structures. Nanophase species, either as the active material itself or as a stability-enhancing coating, are of particular interest.

b. Stabilization of Lithium/Sulfur Cell Components and Interfaces - Rechargeable metallic lithium/sulfur batteries are of great interest for transportation applications because of their potential for very high specific energy, low cost, and minimal environmental impact. However, instabilities of cell components and interfaces lead to unwanted cell capacity loss and short cell lifetimes. The fundamental causes of these instabilities are poorly understood. Grant applications are sought to address these problems by one of the following approaches: (1) designing a sulfur electrode that offers high active material utilization and stable electrode capacity at high charge and discharge rates; (2) developing polymer or gel electrolytes that are compatible with both lithium and sulfur and exhibit sufficiently high ionic conductivity to support high-rate cell charge and discharge, or (3) developing and demonstrating a method to avoid lithium dendrite formation or other deleterious electrode morphology changes in a lithium/sulfur cell.

c. Novel Electrochemical Couples for Advanced Batteries with an Emphasis on Polyvalent Intercalation Systems - New electrochemical couples offer the potential to overcome the limitations of current electrochemical systems, and to provide high-specific energy, long-life and low-cost alternatives. Grant applications are sought to develop and demonstrate novel rechargeable couples that meet the criteria given in the introduction to this topic. Rechargeable, intercalation battery couples that incorporate anodic active materials such as aluminum or magnesium are of particular interest because of their potential use in high-performance, non-aqueous batteries for electric and hybrid vehicles. Areas of interest include (1) the synthesis and/or characterization of ionic conducting polymers and gel electrolytes that can transport polyvalent ions; (2) development of electrolytes that are capable of conducting alkaline earth, other divalent cations, and trivalent transition metal ions; and (3) development of cathodes composed of intercalation compounds that allow the rapid diffusion of polyvalent ions.

d. Alternative, Low-Cost Separators for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries - There is a need for low cost, alternative separators for lithium-based rechargeable batteries. Grant applications are sought for separators that can be inexpensively manufactured and easily substituted into current battery systems. Proposed materials must have physical characteristics (e.g. strength, flexibility, etc.) compatible with current manufacturing processes for spiral and prismatic cells. The cost of the separators should be estimated on a $/square meter basis, and the key performance measure for the separator should be the specific conductivity when used in a standard liquid electrolyte, lithium-ion (Li-ion) system. Performance, when used in a Li-ion cell, must be at least comparable to existing Li-ion technology in terms of power density, expected life, etc., in the temperature ranges to which current systems are exposed. Characteristics that enhance safety, such as "separator shut-down" when the battery is abused, are highly desirable.

References

1. Alper, M. D., Complex Systems: Science for the 21St Century, based on A Workshop on Complex Systems, Berkeley, CA, March 5-6, 1999, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, June 23, 1999. (Report No.: PUB-826) (URL: http://www.sc.doe.gov/production/bes/CompSystems.pdf)

2. Amatucci, G. G., et al., "Polyvalent Intercalation Batteries, a Step into Next Generation Energy Storage," The 198th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Phoenix, AZ, October 22-27, 2000, Abstract No. 215, Electrochemical Society, 2000. (ISBN: 1566773032) (Also appeared in Electrochemical Society journal, Meeting Abstracts, Vol. 2000-2. ISSN: 1091-8213) (URL: http://www.electrochem.org/cgi-bin/abs?mtg=198&abs=0215&type=pdf)

3. Batteries for Advanced Transportation Technologies Program, Quarterly and Annual Reports http://berc.lbl.gov/BATT/BATT.html (Scroll down to bottom of page.)

4. Dagani, R., "Combinatorial Chemistry: A Faster Route to New Materials," Chemical and Engineering News, pp. 77(10):51-60, March 8, 1999. (ISSN: 0009-2347) (Title also listed as "Materials Discovery : [A Faster Route to New Materials]")

5. Dudney, N. J., et al., "Nanocrystalline Li_xMn_2-yO₄ Cathodes for Solid State Thin Film Rechargeable Lithium Batteries," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 146(7):2455-2464, July 1999. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

6. Huguenin, F., "Chemical and Electrochemical Characterization of a Novel Nanocomposite Formed from V₂O₅ and Poly (N-Propane Sulfonic Acid Aniline) a Self-Doped Polyaniline," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 147(7):2437-2444, July 2000. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

7. Kimar, G. G. and Munichandraiah, N., "Solid-State Mg/MnO₂ Cell Employing a Gel Polymer Electrolyte of Magnesium Triflate," Journal of Power Sources, 91(2):157-160, December 2000. (ISSN: 0378-7753)

8. Landgrebe, A. R. and Klingler R. J., Interfaces, Phenomena, and Nanostructures in Lithium Batteries: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Electrochemical Systems, Vol. 2000-36, Pennington, NJ: Electrochemical Society, 2001. (ISBN: 1566773059)

9. Licht, S., et al., "Solution Activators of Aluminum Electrochemistry in Organic Media," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 147(2):496, February 2000. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

10. Licht, S., et al., "The Effect of Water on the Anodic Dissolution of Aluminum in Non-Aqueous Electrolytes," Electrochemistry Communications, 2(5):329-333, May 1, 2000. (ISSN: 1388-2481)

11. Licht, S., et al., "The Organic Phase for Aluminum Batteries," Electrochemical and Solid State Letters, 2(6):262-264, June 1999. (ISSN: 1099-0062)

12. Lowndes, D. H., Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology Research Directions, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1999. (Document No. M99-105015) (URL: http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cpr/misc/105015.pdf)

13. Office of Advanced Automotive Technology Resources and Publications Library http://www.ott.doe.gov/oaat/library.html

14. PNGV Battery Test Manual, [for hybrid electric vehicles], Technical Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, July 1, 1997. (Report No. DOE/ID-10597) (NTIS Order No. DE98050485) (URL: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/578702-lJOESi/webviewable/)

15. Scrosati, B., et al., "Impedance Spectroscopy Study of PEO-Based Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 147(5):1718-1722, 2000. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

16. Sutula, R. A., FY 2000 Progress Report for the Advanced Technology Development Program, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies, December 2000. (URL: http://www.ott.doe.gov/pdfs/ATDFY2000ProgressReport.pdf)

17. USABC Electric Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual, Revision 2, Technical Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, January 1, 1996. (Report No. DOE/ID-10479-Rev.2) (NTIS Order No. DE96009671) (URL: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/214312-wzdRsH/webviewable/)

18. Vereeken, P. M., et al., "Particle Codeposition in Nanocomposite Films," Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 147(7):2572-2576, July 2000. (ISSN: 0013-4651)

13. SOLID STATE LIGHT EMITTING DIODES FOR GENERAL LIGHTING

This topic provides small businesses with an opportunity to carry out substantially novel research and development on the fabrication, processing, and characterization of solid state light emitting diodes (LEDs) and associated systems suitable for general lighting. Solid state lighting represents a major paradigm shift in the lighting industry, with opportunities for major energy saving and pollution control. Steps for achieving this goal have been defined and include: (1) efficacy improvements at all wavelengths to obtain 200 lumen/Watt white-light sources; (2) cost reduction of LED light sources competitive with traditional light sources; (3) development of a new support infrastructure including powering, fixtures, etc.; and (4) identification of new approaches to lighting enabled by LEDs such as "smart" light sources. These and other issues have been addressed in a recent workshop entitled LED Solid State Lighting sponsored jointly by the Department of Energy (DOE) and the Optoelectronics Industrial Development Association (OIDA) [reference 1].

Grant applications should be submitted for consideration under this topic only if the research represents a significant advance in materials or in processing and characterization that will lead ultimately to high-quality LEDs and or phosphors capable of producing white light. Grant applications will be declined if they are: (1) limited to a minor improvement of a material or process, or (2) limited to data collection or a paper study. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Substrates for Nitride-Based LEDs - The group-III nitride-based semiconductors have recently emerged as the leading material for white-light solid state lighting sources. The aluminum gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) alloy system forms a continuous and direct bandgap semiconductor alloy spanning ultraviolet to blue/green/yellow wavelengths. Currently, there are no commercially available native substrates such as gallium nitride (GaN) or aluminum nitride (AlN) for these nitride-based LEDs. Instead, materials such as sapphire (A_l2O₃), silicon (Si) and silicon carbide (SiC) are used as the substrates on which the nitride-based LED are grown. Because of lattice constant mismatch conditions between these substrates and the nitride-based LED, defects, dislocations, and other undesirable effects are produced, leading to poor LED performance. Grant applications are sought to develop methods for growing large (greater than 2 inches), defect free, native (bulk) substrates such as GaN and or AlN, leading to high power and high quality LEDs. While preliminary results show some success in producing bulk GaN [2, 3] and AlN substrates [4], much work is still required. Grant applications are also sought to develop other novel substrates, such as lateral epilayer overgrowth (LEO) of GaN films on Si, to reduce defect and dislocation densities. A substantial effort must be made to determine whether it is possible to provide a substrate material that allows epitaxial growth of AlGaInN materials without significant lattice mismatch; this would require research on alternative approaches such as layered epitaxy overgrowth, pendeo-epitaxy, and strain compensation.

b. Phosphide-Based LEDs - The aluminum gallium indium phosphide material system, (Al_xGa_1-x)_0.50In_0.50P, is nearly lattice-matched to gallium arsenide (GaAs) and has dominated applications requiring high-brightness red, orange, and or amber LEDs. For aluminum compositions ranging from from x = 0 to x ~ 53 percent, corresponding to peak wavelength emission from about 650 nm (deep red) to nearly 555 nm (yellow-green) [5], this material system provides direct-band-gap recombination of the carriers. The reduction of internal quantum efficiency with increased Al composition has been studied, and the dominant mechanisms have been identified through measurements of carrier leakage and by locating indirect band minima. Also, the extraction efficiencies of the available geometries have been well mapped out. Grant applications are sought to overcome some of the remaining challenges, leading to the cost effective utilization of this material system in general lighting. Areas of interest include: (1) band-gap engineering for improved carrier confinement; (2) inexpensive methods for high-extraction efficiency; and (3) control and reduction of degradation mechanisms under high-current, high-temperature operation.

c. Phosphors for Blue and Ultraviolet LEDs - The recent development of white-light LEDs has been based on the phosphor-assisted conversion of blue radiation (wavelength of 450 - 470 nm) from the LED into yellow light. The phosphor, yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), activated with trivalent cerium (Ce³⁺:YAG), converts the blue LED radiation into a very broad band yellow emission. The emission is centered at about 580 nm with a full-width-at-half-maximum linewidth of 160 nm. The emission of Ce³⁺:YAG contains enough orange emission to produce 'white' light at a color temperature of 8,000 K and an efficacy of about 15 lm/W. Although color temperature can be lowered by using more phosphor, the system efficacy decreases. Other problems associated with the production of pseudo-white light by combining a blue LED with a yellow phosphor include: the halo effect of blue/yellow color separation due to the different emission characteristics of the LED (directional) and the phosphor (isotropic); the low color rendering index; and the color shifts (from blue to yellow) with aging and variations in drive current. Grant applications are sought to develop "white light" phosphor coated LEDs having higher efficacy and a lower color temperature. Areas of interest include: (1) developing phosphors that strongly absorb (greater than 90 percent) at the wavelength of the LED radiation; (2) identifying strong red, green, and blue phosphors suitable for generating white-light; (3) developing phosphors with intrinsic efficiencies (defined by the ratio of the emitted photons to absorbed photons) 85 percent or higher; and (4) finding phosphors that display excellent lumen maintenance (defined as the change in lumens/brightness with time).

References

1. Jones, E. D., "Light Emitting Diodes for General Illumination," LED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report, Washington, DC: Optoelectronics Industry Association (OIDA), March 2001. (Available to OIDA members only. See OIDA publications list at: http://www.oida.gov/pubs.html)

2. "Development of Gallium Nitride Single-Crystal," SEI (Sumitomo Electric Industries) News, no. 00-02, February 2000. (Available on the Web at: http://www.sei.co.jp/sn/00_02.html)

3. Zauner, A. R. A., et al., "Homo-Epitaxial GaN Growth on Exact and Misoriented Single Crystals: Suppression of Hillock Formation," Journal of Crystal Growth, 210(4):435-443, March 2000. (ISSN: 0022-0248)

4. Schowalter, L. J., et al., "Epitaxial Growth of AlN and Al0.5Ga0.5N Layers on Aluminum Nitride Substrates," Applied Physics Letters, 76(8):985, 2000. (ISSN: 0003-6951)

5. Kish, F. A. and Fletcher, R. M., "AlGaInP Light-Emitting Diodes," High Brightness Light Emitting Diodes, Semiconductors and Semimetals, 48:149-226, San Diego: Academic Press, 1997. (ISBN: 0127521569) (ISSN: 0080-8784)

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