The mission of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EE) is to lead the nation to a stronger economy, a cleaner environment, and a more secure future through development and deployment of sustainable energy technologies. EE develops technologies that protect the environment and support the nation's economic competitiveness through a program of research, development, and market deployment using private sector partnerships. EE is organized around the four main energy users - power, industry, transportation, and buildings - an orientation that has helped the technology development programs focus on addressing the needs of the marketplace.

It is estimated that the energy technologies and practices supported by the Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy program have saved Americans ten to fifteen billion dollars in energy costs over the past decade. These savings continue to mount as new energy technologies developed by the program for buildings, transportation, power and industry are put to use and as research continues. These energy savings are accompanied by parallel reductions in the emission of pollutants that affect human health and in the production of greenhouse gases.

Electricity consumed for general lighting applications in commercial and industrial buildings, residences, and outdoor applications represents more than 20 percent of the total U. S. electric energy production. The U.S. Department of Energy maintains an active program to explore new methods by which high quality electric light can be produced with less energy and less environmental impact. Despite concentrated efforts from both government and industry, the efficiency of converting electric energy into visible light by commercial light sources has increased only incrementally over the last three decades. While there have been some significant recent advances in light sources, such as the compact fluorescent lamp, no truly revolutionary new light sources have been developed and commercialized since the mid 1960s. Increases in lighting system efficiency have come primarily through substitution of one type of lamp with another and the addition of sophisticated controls.

The potential for substantial increases in light source efficiency is significant. Even the most efficient of today's sources convert only about 30 percent of the electrical energy into visible light. The technical potential exists to increase light production efficiency by a factor of two or more. The realization of this high level of performance will require major improvements in basic light producing technologies present in existing lamp types (incandescent, fluorescent and high intensity discharge types) and emerging technologies such as solid state light sources. New applications of cutting edge technologies for lighting system controls and ballasts will also be required to fully realize the potential of these new sources.

Grant applications submitted to this topic must be compliant with the Lighting 2020 Vision Road Map and must address the potential for significant efficiency improvements, rather than incremental advances to existing technology. All grant applications must include clear commercialization pathways and estimates of energy conservation potential. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Electronics in Lighting - Grant applications are sought to integrate the immense computational and data processing power represented by contemporary electronics into products used for general illumination purposes. Aside from a relatively small number of specialized controls and dimming electronic ballasts used in fluorescent lighting, these advanced electronics technologies are not well exhibited in most general illumination products. Areas of interest include: (1) inexpensive and microminiature power supplies designed to produce optimum supply voltages and current for inexpensive, dedicated compact fluorescent lamps; (2) fully integrated lamps and associated controls for autonomous daylight harvesting; (3) intelligent ballasts that automatically sense the configuration and power requirements of a fluorescent lamp; (4) universal ballasts that can efficiently power a wide range of fluorescent lamps with differing output power; (5) using semiconductors to permit devices to operate on a range of supply voltages or integrated semiconductors with individual, device-specific addresses and memory; (6) increasing the efficiency of ballasts designed for other lamp types such as Compact Metal Halide or other discharge types; and (7) Internet-type communication protocols to allow systematic dimming or building-wide reduced energy consumption or audits.

b. Improved Incandescent Lighting - About 37 percent of lighting energy use is consumed by incandescent lamps. Existing incandescent lighting technology provides practical and inexpensive solutions to numerous lighting applications including many residential, decorative, and specialty uses. While alternatives to the incandescent lamp are available to achieve large reductions in electric lighting energy consumption, there may always be a need for producing light based upon the incandescence of electrically heated filaments or conductive substrates. With existing incandescent lighting products operating at 10 to 20 lumens per watt, ample opportunity exists to increase efficiency while still relying upon the basic incandescent process. Therefore, grant applications are sought for technology to significantly increase the efficiency and efficacy of incandescent light products. Areas of interest include improved filament radiation, IR reflection, and power conditioning.

c. New Solid State Light Source Material - Many candidate organic and inorganic materials have been examined for use in semiconductor devices that produce monochromatic light. For conventional LEDs, traditional 3-5 materials and substrates exhibit the potential to overcome certain internal quantum efficiency barriers; however, there are many other technical obstacles to overcome before it would be practical to produce high luminous outputs at the very low costs necessary to make a practical general illumination source. Therefore, grant applications are sought for innovative materials research leading to a substantial increase in device efficiency, especially for the generation of broadband, white light. Areas of interest include alternative material choices that are more closely aligned with efficient phosphor performance, and novel combinations of organic dyes and dopants that may shift spectral outputs to more desirable regimes. Grant applications must be for general-purpose illumination (not for information displays or for monochromatic, low lumen output specialty applications), address specific materials science opportunities, include predictions of light production efficiency, and discuss the theoretical and practical limits of the subject technology.

d. Novel Structures and Designs for Solid State Devices - Existing semiconductor light producing devices may not be optimally configured for general illumination applications. External quantum efficiencies may be low, and other geometric optical limitations may impose performance constraints that limit overall device efficiency. In addition, existing devices are costly to manufacture and depend upon labor-intensive crystal growth technologies. Therefore, grant applications are sought for innovative device designs that could potentially overcome these known limitations by taking large, quantum steps forward in optical efficiency. Areas of interest include alternative geometrical designs, matrices, or arrays of existing device designs to overcome such physical limitations as heat dissipation and low optical efficiency. Other novel device designs that promise even more device efficiency are also sought. Grant applications must be for general purpose illumination (not for information displays or for monochromatic, low lumen output specialty applications), address basic conceptual design issues packaging concepts, include predictions of light production efficiency, and discuss the theoretical and practical limits of the subject technology.

1. Ballasts and the Generation of Light, New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1996. (ISBN: 0879951214) (Publisher No. DG-8-96)

2. Controlling Lighting with Building Automation Systems, Lighting Answers Series, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Lighting Research Center, National Lighting Product Information Program, May 1997. (URL: http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/NLPIP/Online/Special/Answers/LA-BAS/BAS_1.htm)

3. Gough, A. B., et al., Lighting Research Bibliography, 15-16 pages, 1997. (Available from author: Mr. Alfred B. Gough, Institute for Lighting Research, Gough & Associates, 2626 Laurel Park Hwy., Hendersonville, NC 28739. Phone: 828-692-1904)

4. Hemenway, C. L., et al., Physical Electronics, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962. (Library of Congress Catalogue No. 62-15177)

5. Hirsh, M. N. and Oskam, H. J., Gaseous Electronics, Vol. 1: Electrical Discharges, New York, NY: Academic Press. 1978 (ISBN: 0123497019) (This publication has only 1 volume.)

6. Jones, E. D., Light Emitting Diodes for General Illumination, [LED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report], Washington, DC: Optoelectronics Industry Development Association (OIDA), March 2001. (Available to OIDA members only. See OLED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report on OIDA publications list at: http://www.oida.org/)

7. Kendall, M. and Scholand, M., Energy Savings Potential of Solid State Lighting in General Lighting Applications, Final Report, Arlington, VA: Arthur D. Little, Inc., 2001. (Available on the Web at: http://www.eren.doe.gov/buildings/documents/pdfs/ssl_final_report3.pdf

8 Lighting Handbook: Reference and Application, 9th ed., New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2000. (ISSN: 1088-5102) (9th ed. Publisher No. HB-9-00)

9. Stringfellow, G. B., and Craford, M. G., eds., High Brightness Light Emitting Diodes, Vol. 48: Semiconductors and Semimetals, San Diego: Academic Press, 1997. (Vol. 48 ISBN: 0127521569) (ISSN: 0080-8784)

10. Stolka, M., Organic Light Emitting Diodes for General Illumination, [OLED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report], Washington, DC: Optoelectronics Industry Development Association, March 2001. (Available to OIDA members only. See OLED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report on OIDA publications list at: http://www.oida.org/)

11. Terman, F. E., Radio and Electronic Engineering, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955. (Library of Congress Catalogue No. 55-6174)

Significant advances in the state-of-the-art in building envelope components and in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems for small buildings have taken place over the past two decades. Nonetheless, $15 billion worth of energy is wasted in residential and light commercial thermal distribution systems, and an equivalent amount is wasted because of poorly installed or degrading equipment. Therefore, great potential exists for further improvements in energy efficiency and delivered thermal comfort. Areas of opportunity include systems integration, in which two or more parts of these building systems are jointly optimized, automated monitoring, and adjustment of system parameters. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Equipment for Low Air Flow HVAC Systems - Recent research has identified a three-part strategy for greatly reducing the energy requirements for space heating and cooling in newly designed homes: (1) minimize the air-flow requirement, (2) pre-cool the ventilation air, and (3) place all ductwork within the conditioned space. The most efficient way to minimize the air-flow requirement would be to minimize the peak cooling load through good insulation practice, optimal design and placement of windows, and use of a low-infiltration, "tight" building envelope. The ventilation air could be pre-cooled by bringing it into one location and passing it over the cooling coil before it mixes with the house air; this would permit twice as much enthalpy to be removed from the air compared to a standard air-conditioning system. The first two principles interact to facilitate the third, because reducing the required airflow makes it possible to downsize the ducts, making them easier to hide. Although the energy-savings potential of this overall strategy is large, it requires an equipment package that operates on the ventilation air only at some times, and on recirculated air plus ventilation air at other times (when loads are higher). In addition, the two air streams must remain separate until after they have passed over the cooling coil. Grant applications are sought to design and develop the above-described heating/cooling appliance. Collaboration with a medium-to-large volume builder is encouraged to facilitate testing in actual houses and adoption of the technology within the industry.

b. Continuous Commissioning of HVAC Systems - While great attention has been paid to the design and manufacture of HVAC systems for small buildings, little thought has been given to ensuring that these systems are properly installed or that the operating parameters are maintained over time. A system capable of self-monitoring ("continuous commissioning") would use active test signals, on-board evaluation, and equipment adjustment in response to those signals. Such a system would have greater energy efficiency and improved thermal comfort, not only at the initial installation but also over the useful service life of the equipment. Grant applications are sought to develop a generic approach to heating and air-conditioning systems that are capable of monitoring important parameters (including system air flow, refrigerant charge, power draw, delivered air temperature, and humidity - as many as possible), self-diagnosis, and adjustment. Environmental conditions that might require adjustment include restrictive return ductwork, restrictive supply ductwork, high inlet humidity due to return leaks, etc. Proposed approaches must be readily adoptable by all manufacturers of HVAC equipment and reflect the cost constraints associated with this industry. Teaming with a manufacturer of HVAC equipment would be a significant advantage.

c. Low-Loss Distribution System for Modulating HVAC Equipment - HVAC equipment that modulates output to match heating and cooling requirements as they vary during the day offers higher energy efficiency and improved comfort in residential applications. However, along with system output, the modulating equipment varies the airflow in the distribution system. Because the distribution systems are sized for full-load airflows, they become inefficient when operating at reduced flow rate conditions; i.e., the increased residence time of the heated or cooled air inside the ducts results in greater heat losses or heat gains to the conditioned air. Consequently, these modulating HVAC systems require much more insulation, especially when ducts are installed in unconditioned spaces such as attics (a typical duct location for most new slab-on-grade construction today). Grant applications are sought to develop and test alternative distribution systems that would eliminate the additional losses at low-flow conditions for modulating HVAC equipment.

1. Andrews, J. W., How to Heat and Cool a Home with 400 CFM Supply Air and Keep the Ducts in the Conditioned Space, Brookhaven National Laboratory, May 1999. (Report No. BNL-66610) (Available from the author: jwandrews@bnl.gov)

2. Breuker, M., et al., "Smart Maintenance for Rooftop Units," ASHRAE Journal, 42(11):41-47, November 2000. (ISSN: 0001-2491)

3. Neme, C., et al., Energy Savings Potential from Addressing Residential Air Conditioner and Heat Pump Installation Problems, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, February 1999. (Available from American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. Telephone: 202-429-0063. Web site: http://www.aceee.org/pubs/a992.htm)

4. Walker, I. S., Sensitivity of Forced Air Distribution System Efficiency to Climate, Duct Location, Air Leakage, and Insulation, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. (Report No. LBNL-43371) (Available on the Web at: http://epb1.lbl.gov/. In the purple menu, click on "Publications." Under "Residential Buildings, click on "Thermal Energy Distribution-Ducts." Scroll down to "Walker, I. S. 2001...LBNL 43371.")

The development of advanced transportation technologies could reduce propulsion system cost and weight while improving energy management controls in electric and hybrid electric vehicles with ultra-low emissions and very high fuel efficiency. This topic deals with soft switching power converters, improved battery performance, integrated controller-motors, and innovative power transmissions. Goals include reductions in cost, weight, and size while improving the overall power efficiency, performance, and driving range. Proposed approaches must show how the technologies can be applied to large volume manufacturing and must also be affordable, both in procurement costs as well as in operating costs. Research efforts are expected to involve multi-disciplinary teams of scientists and engineers. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Soft-Switching Bi-Directional DC/DC Converters - In hybrid electric vehicles, high power bi-directional DC/DC converters are used to connect a battery to the high voltage traction DC bus. Usually, these converters use hard-switching techniques due to the complexity and high cost of the bi-directional soft-switching topologies. At least half of the power losses in the converters are attributed to heat losses associated with this switching, leading to high operating temperatures. Additional semiconductor devices with better switching capabilities can be used to keep junction temperatures within limits, but this increases the cost, size, and weight of the DC/DC converter. Semiconductor heat dissipation also limits the switching frequency of the hard-switching converters, and the lower switching frequency results in increased size and weight of the magnetic components, further increasing converter size and weight. Therefore, grant applications are sought to develop a simple, cost-effective soft-switching topology to reduce DC/DC converter size and weight and improve efficiency. The proposed design should be scaleable in 30 kW to 150kW power range, 150 - 300 V battery voltage range, and 400-800 V DC bus voltage range.

b. Rapid Charging Techniques for Battery Systems - Current technology for energy storage systems in vehicles and stationary applications typically require approximately the same length of time for recharging as they took to discharge. Many applications, such as energy management, transmission stability, or voltage support could benefit from much shorter recharging times. Greater power flow into the battery would provide much better flexibility in responding to varying load and supply. Grant applications are sought for techniques that would substantially reduce the time required to recharge stationary or vehicle battery systems. Proposed approaches may include use of pulsed charging regimes or changes in battery architecture.

c. Innovative Concepts for Integrated Controller- Motors - Advances in integrated traction drive controller-motors are needed to meet joint program goals for motors and control power electronics in propulsion applications. Propulsion systems must deliver constant power over the entire speed range. As the vehicle reaches higher speeds, less torque is required from the drive system than at low speeds. In conventional vehicles, a constant power ratio of 4:1 is accomplished by using a multi-speed transmission. However, in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, a transmission, along with its higher cost and reduced efficiency, would be unnecessary if the electric motor can provide the same result. A high performance DC brushless permanent magnet motor (with greater than 98 percent efficiency) would be an attractive candidate for these propulsion systems. Unfortunately, they provide "constant" torque rather than constant power throughout the speed range. To compensate, larger control system inverters must be used, adding to size and weight. Grant applications are sought to develop a 30 kW, 300 volt integrated controller-motor that (1) provides at least a 4-to-1 constant power ratio over the entire speed range, (2) maintains the ultra-high efficiency of high performance DC brushless permanent magnet motors, and (3) does not require an oversized inverter. Proposed approaches should draw from new electromagnetic, cooling and control technologies that are lighter, more compact, and more reliable than those in use today. Grant applications should demonstrate improved system performance, reliability, and cost over conventional, non-integrated methods. As a reference, the cost and power density goals for a 30 kW, integrated controller-motor are $10/kW and 5 kW/kg, respectively.

d. Improved Fuel Efficiency with Optimized Power Trains - Improving the efficiency of conventional automotive internal combustion engines (ICE) and hybrid electric vehicles are key elements of the overall strategy for reducing vehicle related pollutant emissions and fuel consumption. A continuously variable transmission (CVTs) is a candidate solution that would require little modification to an ICE vehicle in order to operate near its optimum point throughout the driving cycle. However, current CVT systems deliver only enough torque for light duty applications. Therefore, grant applications are sought for novel CVT designs that can deliver sufficient torque, durability, and reliability to function with hybrid electric vehicles and ICEs used in today's automobile fleet (i.e., 1.8 liter displacement and greater). Proposed approaches for CVT control systems should address the critical operational issues of fuel economy and impact on vehicle driving characteristics. It is recognized that for novel designs, these issues may yet be undetermined and therefore the development of metrics quantifying these characteristics should be addressed Phase 1.

References

1. Ashley, S., "Is CVT the Car Transmission of the Future?" Mechanical Engineering, 116(11):64-68, 1994. (ISSN: 0025-6501) (Available from Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Telephone: 1-877-606-7323. Web site: http://www.sae.org/misc/tech_info.htm)

2. Brecht, W. B., "The Role of Second Order Reactions in the Operating Model of Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries and Cells," The Battery Man, 40(5):24, May 1998. (ISSN: 0005-6359)

3. Caraceni, A., et al., "Hybrid Power Unit Development for FIAT MULTIPLA Vehicle," presented at International Congress & Exposition, Detroit, MI, February 1998, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1998. (SAE Technical Paper No. 981124) (Also published in book of collected papers: Technology for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. ISBN: 076800151X. SAE Book No. SP-1331)*

4. Fellini, R., et al., "Application of a Product Platform Design Process to Automotive Powertrains," 8th AIAA/USAF/NASA/BMDO Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Design, September 2000, Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), 2000. (Paper No.AIAA-2000-4849) (Available on the Web at: http://ode.engin.umich.edu/papers/AIAA2000Fellini.pdf)

5. Howard, G., "The Doubtful Future of the CVT," Car Design and Technology, (Issue 9):44-48, April 1992. (ISSN: 0961-9372) (Available from the British Library Document Supply Centre. Web site: http://www.bl.uk/services/bsds/dsc/overview.html)

6. Johnson, V. H., et al., "HEV Control Strategy for Real-Time Optimization of Fuel Economy and Emissions," presented at Future Car Congress, Crystal City, VA, April 2000, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2000. (SAE Technical Paper No. 2000-01-1543) (Available on the Web at: http://www.ctts.nrel.gov/analysis/pdfs/real_time.pdf) *

7. Lam, L. T., et al., "Pulsed-Current Charging of Lead/Acid Batteries ( A Possible Means for Overcoming Premature Capacity Loss?)" Journal of Power Sources, 53(2):215-228, February 1995. (ISSN 0378-7753)

8. Micklem, J. D., et al., "The Magnitude of Losses in the Steel Pushing V-Belt Continuously Variable Transmission," Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 210(1):57-62, 1996. (ISSN: 0954-4070)

9. Nelson, R. F. and Kepros, M. A., "AC Ripple Effects on VRLA Batteries in Float Applications," 14th Annual Battery Conference on Applications and Advances, Long Beach, CA, January 14, 1999, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE; 1999. (ISBN: 0780349679)

10. Palombo, D. and Miller, G., "A High Efficiency Electric Motor Propeller Propulsion System for Solar Powered HAE UAV's," presented at Aerospace Power Systems Conference, Williamsburg, VA, April 1998, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1998. (SAE Technical Paper No. 981263) (Also published in book of collected papers: SAE Aerospace Power Systems Conference Proceedings. ISBN: 0768001889. SAE Book No. P-322)*

11. Rakotovao, M. and Virgine, P., "Case of DC Motors: Conducted Interference," presented at International Congress & Exposition, Detroit, MI, February 1998, Society of Automotive Engineers , 1998. (SAE Technical Paper No. 980385) (Also published in book of collected papers: Developments in CAD-CAM and CAE, 1998. ISBN: 0768001560. SAE Book No. SP-1336)

12. Rand, D. A., et al., "Competing Theories of Premature Capacity Loss - Running Down a Battery Killer!" The Battery Man, 35(9):16, September 1993. (ISSN: 0005-6359)

Fuel switching represents the most direct route to expanding the use of renewable energy sources by U.S. energy customers within the existing transportation and power generation infrastructure. In particular, the potential market for biodiesel fuel is enormous. Thirty billion gallons of diesel fuel are used each year in the U.S. transportation system. In the power sector, diesel generators provide approximately 80 MW of power, installed as 50-2000kW diesel gensets. The role of diesel fuels would be larger still if air quality concerns did not hamper regulatory acceptance in both energy efficient transportation and peak energy management. The enhancement of biodiesel fuel quality and availability would contribute to high-efficiency trans-portation, reliable power generation, and increased use of renewable technologies. Similarly, addressing air quality concerns by reducing NO_x emissions and ensuring the quality of delivered fuel will have a positive impact on the use of both petroleum and biodiesel fuel in these applications. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Dehydrogenation of Saturated Long Chain Fatty Acid Methyl Esters Used for Biodiesel - Biodiesel fuel properties are influenced by the proportion of fatty acids present in the final fuel. Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic or linolenic acids provide good cold weather performance, but reduce stability, Cetane number, and lead to high levels of NO_x emissions. Saturated fatty acids, such as stearic and palmitic acids, improve Cetane and stability and reduce NO_x emissions, but create significant cold weather performance issues. The number of double bonds appears to be a key factor in the performance of these fuels (polyunsaturated fatty acids have too many; saturated fatty acids have too few). Several approaches have been tried in search of a reasonable trade-off: blending feedstocks, using a fuel consisting of mono-saturated fatty acid methyl esters, and hydrogenating polyunsaturated fatty acids with selective catalysts to reduce the level of unsaturation (without significantly increasing the fraction of saturates). However, these approaches have achieved only limited success.

As an alternative approach, grant applications are sought for lab or industrial scale demonstrations of technologies that can selectively add double bonds to long chain saturated fatty acid methyl esters (C14, C16, C18) in biodiesel. Among the approaches of interest, catalytic dehydrogenation has been shown to be particularly effective for the production of methacrylic acid from isobutyric acid in the detergent industry (introducing double bonds at positions immediately adjacent to the carboxylic acid functional group). This straightforward, heterogeneous process proceeds in a single step by passing the substrate over a heated catalyst bed. Although the infrastructure for heterogeneously catalyzed processes is well established, other approaches based on homogeneous catalysis may also be available. Proposed approaches should not increase the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acid methyl esters by more than 5 percent, nor should they add more than 10 cents per gallon to the production cost of biodiesel fuel.

b. Low-Nitrogen Content Oil and Biodiesel for NO_x Reduction - Although the currently accepted NO_x emission factor for oil burners is 0.13 to 0.15 pounds per million BTU (which translates to 100-115 ppm in the flue gas), a 50 percent reduction to 50-60 ppm is achievable with modifications to current technology. This would represent an annual NO_x emission reduction of 38,000 tons. Technologies to achieve this level with oil, and possibly with biodiesel, are considered near-commercial. Grant applications are sought for yet further reductions in NO_x emission levels to the order of 20 ppm, which would result in a reduction of 90 percent from current levels. Successful research in this technology would lead to the development of low cost, more reliable, and easy-to-service combustion systems. A low nitrogen content fuel may be assumed for achieving the NO_x target.

c. Contamination Reduction During Storage and Transport - Marked changes can occur to fuel quality during transportation and extended storage. Exposure to heat and water, contamination with debris, and growth of biological organisms all can contribute to the accumulation of gums, sludge, and water. This degradation in fuel quality leads to system fouling and costly service and greatly degrades the efficiency of combustion hardware. Grant applications are sought to develop instrumentation and associated technology for evaluating the storage stability of oil and biodiesel and for determining the presence of sludge and water in tanks.

1. Bajars, L. and Croce, L. J., Catalytic Oxidative Dehydrogenation Process, Petro-Tex Chemical Corp., 1987. (CODEN: USXXAM US 4658074 A 19870414) (Available full-text online via U.S. Patent and Trademark Office: http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/srchnum.htm; search by number: 4,658,074)

2. Butcher, T., et al., "High-Flow Fan Atomization Burner (HFAB) Development and Field Trials," Proceedings of the 2001 National Oilheat Research Alliance (NORA) Technology Conference, Paper No. 01-01, NORA/DOE/BNL, April 2001. (Proceedings available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/780685-BfLKth/native/780685.pdf)

3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 5th ed., AP-42, Vol. I (Stationary Point and Area Sources), Chapter 1 ("External Combustion Sources"), Environmental Protection Agency, 1998.

4. Crusson-Blouet, E. and Daubrege, F., "Catalyst System for Oxydehydrogenation of Saturated Carboxylic Acids or Their Esters," Chemical Abstracts, 124(4):30594t, 1995. (Patent: France Demande; FR 2716634 A1; Date: 19950901) (CODEN: FRXXBL) (Dialog File 313, #124030594) (Language: French)*

5. Daubrege, F., "Catalysts Containing Oxygen, Molybdenum, and Phosphorus for Oxydehydrogenation of Saturated Carboxylic Acids or Esters or Alkane Oxidation," Chemical Abstracts, 129(9):109399v, 1998. (Patent: France Demande ; FR 2756500 A1 Date: 19980605) (CODEN: FRXXBL) (Dialog File 314, #129109399)] (Language: French)*

6. Hatano, M., et al., Oxyhydrogenation Catalysts for Manufacture of Unsaturated Carboxylic Acids, Japan: Mitsubishi Chem. Corp., 1997. (PATENT: Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho ; JP 9738495 A2 ; JP 0938495, October 2, 1997) (CODEN: JKXXAF JP 09038495 A2 19970210 Heisei) (Language: Japanese. English abstract available online via Japan Patent Office at: http://www1.ipdl.jpo.go.jp/PA1/cgi-bin/PA1INIT?998404893203. Under "Number Search," search for: 09-38495)*

7. Kawanari, M., et al., Manufacture of Partially Dehydrogenated Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives, Japan: Snow Brand Milk Products Co., Ltd.; Mitsubishi Steel Mfg. Co., Ltd., 1991. (CODEN: JKXXAF JP 03281697 A2 19911212 Heisei) (Language: Japanese. English abstract available online via Japan Patent Office at: http://www1.ipdl.jpo.go.jp/PA1/cgi-bin/PA1INIT?998404893203. Choose "Number Search" and search for: 03-281697)*

8. Krajewski, R., et al., Emissions Characteristics of Modern Oil Heating Equipment, Brookhaven National Laboratory, July 1990. (BNL Report 52249)

9. McDonald, R., et al., "Oilheat Five-year Research Strategy," Proceedings of the 2001 National Oilheat Research Alliance Technology Conference, Paper No. 01-03, NORA/DOE/BNL, April 2001. (Proceedings available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/780685-BfLKth/native/780685.pdf)

10. Moretti, J., "Recherches sur la deshydrogénation catalytique des acides gras," Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France, pp. 1154-61, 1948. (ISSN: 0037-8968)*

11. National Transportation Statistics 2000, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2001. (DOT Document no. BTS01-01) (ISSN: 0161-8628) (URL: http://www.bts.gov/btsprod/nts/)

Wind turbines are coming closer to commercial competitiveness because of the current high cost of natural gas, the future price expectations of natural gas, and the temporary production tax credit. Almost 4000 MW were installed worldwide in 2000, and 1500 to 2000 MW are expected in the United States in 2001. Not withstanding the current installations, improvements in cost/performance are needed to assure the future commercial competitiveness of this technology.

1. Babcock, B. A., and Conover, K. E., "Design of Cost-Effective Towers for an Advanced Wind Turbine," presented at Wind Energy-1994: 13th Symposium; Energy Sources Technology Conference,New Orleans; LA, January 1994, 15:261-268, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Solar Energy Division, January 1994. (ISBN: 0791811875) (For more information, contact ASME. Telephone: 800-843-2763. Web site: http://www.asme.org)

2. Carlin, P. W., et al., The History and State of the Art of Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Technology, Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, February 2001. (Report No. NREL/TP-500-28607) (Available on the Web at: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/28607.pdf)

3. Doman, G. S., "Applications of Broad Range Variable Speed Generators to Large Horizontal Axis, Wind Turbines," Proceedings of the 1985 AWEA Annual Conference – Windpower '85, pp. 177-182, American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), 1985. (Library of Congress Control No. 99-111623)*

4. Ernst, J., "Control of a Variable Speed Wind Energy Converter with a Synchronous and a D.C. Link Converter," Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference 1984, pp. 606-611, Bedford, Great Britain: H.S. Stephens and Associates, 1985. (ISBN: 0951027107) (European Wind Energy Association Web site: http://www.ewea.org)

5. Fingersh, L. J. and Carlin, P. W., "Results from the NREL Variable-Speed Test Bed," Proceedings of the 17th Annual ASME Wind Energy Symposium, Reno, NV, January 1998, pp. 233-237, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronauts (AIAA)/ASME, 1998. (ISBN: 1563472635)**

6. Frederick, G. R. and Savino, J. M., Summary of Tower Designs for Large Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines, Technical Memorandum, NASA Lewis Research Center, January 1, 1986. (Report No. NASA-TM-87166) (Government Printing Office No. NAS 1.15:87166)

7. Griffin, D. A. and Zuteck, M. D., "Scaling of Composite Wind Turbine Blades for Rotors of 80 to 120 Meter Diameter," presented at the 2001 ASME Wind Energy Symposium, Reno, NV, January 2001, AIAA/ASME, January 2001. (ISBN: 156347476X) (AIAA Paper No. 2001-0021)**

8. Hau, E., Wind Turbines, Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics, New York: Springer, 2000. (ISBN: 3540570640)

9. Johnston, M. and Twidell, J., "Mass Savings in Wind Turbine Towers," Proceedings of the British Wind Energy Association Annual Conference–BWEA '97, Edinburgh, UK, July 1997, pp. 211-224, Edinburgh: Mechanical Engineering Publications Limited, 1998. (ISBN: 1860580823) (British Wind Energy Association Web Site: http://www.britishwindenergy.co.uk/main.html)

10. Joose, P., et al.,"Economic Use of Carbon Fibers in Large Wind Turbine Blades," Wind Energy: a Collection of the 2000 ASME Wind Energy Symposium Technical Papers at the 38th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, p. 367, ASME/AIAA, January 2000. (ISBN: 1563473712)

11. Lipo, T. A., et al., Investigation of Variable Speed for Wind Turbine Power Generation.ln, 1981. (Report No. DOE/ET/29100-18) (See Section 7.1)

12. Lobitz, D. W., and Laino, D. J., "Load Mitigation with Twist-Coupled HAWT Blades," A Collection of the 1999 ASME Wind Energy Symposium Technical Papers, p. 124, AIAA, January 1999. (ISBN 1563472929) (Paper no. AIAA-99-0033) (Available on the Web at: http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energywind_energy/asme/ASME1-98b.pdf)

13. Mandell, J. F. and Samborsky, D. D., DOE/MSU Composite Material Fatigue Database: Test Methods, Materials, and Analysis, Albuquerque, NM: Sandia National Laboratories, 1997. (Report No. SAND97-3002 ) (February 5, 2001 update: http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/wind_energy/topical.htm. Scroll down to "MATERIALS: COMPOSITES," and click on your selection)

14. Muljadi, E., et al., Control Strategy for Variable-Speed, Stall-Regulated Wind Turbines.ll, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 1998. (Report No. NREL/CP-500-24311) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.nrel.gov/wind/CP-500-24311.pdf)

15. Muljadi, E., et al., Self-Excited Induction Generator for Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Generation.l, NREL, October 1, 1996. (Report No. NREL/CP-440-21436) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/435337-hoYim1/webviewable/) (Also appeared in Power Quality Solutions / Alternative Energy: Official Proceedings of the Ninth International Power Quality Solutions, presented at Powersystems World '96 Conference & Exhibit, pp. 343-352, Ventura, CA: Intertec International, 1996. (ISBN: 0931033640)

16. Ong, C. H. and Tsai, S. W., Design, Manufacture and Testing of a Bend-Twist D-Spar, Albuquerque, NM: Sandia National Laboratories, 1999. (Report No. SAND99-1324) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/9461-TuU6fW/webviewable/)

17. Ong, C. H., et al., "Design, Manufacture and Testing of a Bend-Twist D-Spar," A Collection of the 1999 ASME Wind Energy Symposium Technical Papers, p. 43, New York: AIAA, January 1999. (ISBN: 1563472929)

18. Pena, R., et al., "A Doubly Fed Induction Generator Using Back-to-Back PWM Converters Supplying an Isolated Load from a Variable Speed Wind Turbine," IEE Proceedings. Electric Power Applications, 143(5): 380 -387, September 1996. (ISSN: 1350-2352)

19. Power-Electronic, Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Development: 1988-1993: a Summary of the 33M-VS Wind Turbine Development Program, Final Report, conducted by Kenetech Windpower, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation, and Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), EPRI, 1995. (EPRI Technical Report No. TR-104738) (EPRI e-mail: askepri@epri.com)

20. Reuter, A. and Bormann, A., "New Concepts and Optimal Design of Steel Towers for Large Wind Turbines," 1996 European Union Wind Energy Conference: Proceedings of an international conference held at Göteborg, Sweden, May 20-24, 1996, pp. 231-234, Bedford, Great Britain: H.S. Stephens & Associates, c1996. (ISBN: 0952145294)

21. Smith, G. A. "A Novel Converter for VSCF Wind Turbines," Renewable Energy, 9(1-4):853-857, 1996. (ISSN: 09601481)

22. Torrey, D. A. and Childs, S. E., "Development of Variable-Reluctance Wind Generators," Proceedings of the 1993 AWEA Annual Conference ( Windpower '93, San Francisco, CA, July 12-16, 1993, pp. 258-265, AWEA, 1993.*

23. Weigand, C. H., et al., "Utility-Scale Variable-Speed Wind Turbines Using a Doubly- Fed Generator with a Soft-Switching Power Converter," Proceedings of the 1996 AWEA Annual Conference ( Windpower '96, Denver, CO, June 23-27, 1996, pp. 235-240, AWEA, 1996. (OSTI Document No. 419392) (Available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/419392-PScSTl/webviewable/

24. WindPACT Turbine Design Scaling Studies Technical Area 3 - Self-Erecting Tower and Nacelle Feasibility, Technical Report, Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, May 31, 2001. (Report No. NREL/SR-500-29493) (OSTI Document No. 783408) (Available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/783408-amFmCQ/native/)

* AWEA Web site: http://www.awea.org. Telephone: (202) 383-2500

** AIAA Web site: http://www.aiaa.org.